Android Application Essay Example for Free

Android Application Essay The reign of android products in the market is the talk of the town and the craze of owning an android based smart phone is all a youths mind is smitten by. This is all because of the wide range of android apps at the user’s disposal which can be installed on these android based smart phones. Android offers the android market which is an open market made available to all android gadget users. The android smart phones do not run on the principle of non-contemporary mobile methodology i. e. these android gadgets do not come with a pre-set of limited applications already installed in the cell phone by the company at the time of manufacture, instead only the basic apps are installed and a privilege to choose and install from a wide variety of apps is facilitated to the user. Android gadget users have to just turn on their internet, sign in to their goggle account and they can access all the android applications. There are a lot of applications in every genre from utility, entertainment, security, business, education, games, etc. Entertainment apps like various varieties music players, video players, photo viewers, music creator, video clippers, photo editors, etc., utility apps like maps and road guides, locators of shops, hospitals, hotels and various buildings and landmarks in a particular city which use GPS services direct from the satellite, alarm clocks, clocks showing time of multiple time zones, a thousand variety of games from strategy to racing and flash games to puzzle games, apps designed for providing a convenient user interface to browse through your favourite social networking websites and many more steal the ranks in the search counts for sure. The android apps are not just limited to entertainment and mobile utility and security. The android market has a huge choice of apps for the businessmen, people in the real estate, financial markets like the share market and the international currency exchange and the commodity markets, people related to software development and information technology, etc. The android apps can also be used for managing funds in your bank accounts. There are a lot of android apps designed to help a user browse through a lot of products from numerous shops and brands, select, compare quality and prices, and also purchase them electronically by directly transferring funds from their bank accounts. The rapidly increasing advancement in the development of the contemporary generation of android apps will also see a breakthrough in the e-commerce section. The biggest attraction about the android market is that it is a free and open market availing the most of the apps from all genres free of cost to the users. When you browse the android apps through the android market you will also be supported by a clear description of the app, that is the way it works, tips to use it and all info about the app. Adding to that a person can also see the product reviews and user ratings along with the product in the list of apps in the android market.

Cultural Diversity in Engineering

Cultural Diversity in Engineering This paper will look at the importance of cultural diversity within the field of engineering, why its important and what the positive impacts or diversifying your work-place are. Cultural diversity is immensely important within every country throughout the world. Although due to Australia being such a new country, and the history of the country the importance of communicating with Indigenous communities is especially important. Maintaining a strong relationship throughout the consultation and development phase always needs to be of the upmost importance. This obviously extends beyond communicating with the Indigenous communities within Australia and can extend to foreign works or clients. Making sure everything is handled in a culturally respectful way needs to be ensured by any professional engineer; from the first meeting until the last. Due to Australia being such a highly diverse country it will be very common to work in a culturally diverse workplace. This means that within engineering although being aware of cultural differences will not only assist a professional engineer within consultations but within the workplace as well. Different cultural backgrounds and upbringings different problems can be solved in different ways. Whenever looking at Aboriginal culture it is important to note Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures are complex and diverse. (Australian Government 2015) Due to this it is very important to understand when going into one community their beliefs, and the way they do things may be completely different. There is no blanket statement when it comes to communicating with Indigenous communities, they all communicate differently with many even speaking different languages. The Australian Government (2014) has stated that over two-hundred and fifty Australian language groups were spoken in 1788, today approximately one-hundred and twenty are still spoken. This is a simple example of how culturally diverse Australia is. 2.1 Communication and protocols Protocols exist as standards of behavior used by people to show respect to one another. (Supporting Carers, 2010) Protocols of Aboriginal communities, much like communication are diverse and extremely important. As every community is unique it is always important to do research and consult with an expert before entering a community and risking disrespecting an elder, or the community. The Indigenous cultures of Australia are the oldest living cultural history in the world they go back at least 50,000 years and some argue closer to 65,000 years (Australian Government 2015) Due to this some communities have extremely strong beliefs, other communities may have contradictory beliefs but it is important to respect both when communicating with them. One of the main differences between not only the Aboriginal communities, but within general Australian culture is eye contact. Although in a general conversation eye contact may be okay, within Aboriginal cultures it has very different meaning. Depending on the community eye contact may be a sign of disrespect, or quite the opposite. Another reason it is important to speak with someone with greater knowledge of the community, or do research. Some general tips to overcome language barriers (Queensland Government, 2015) Avoid using complex words. Explain why you need to ask any questions. Always check you understood the meaning of the words the person has used and vice versa. Use diagrams, models, DVDs and images to explain concepts, instructions and terms. Be cautious using traditional languages unless you have excellent understanding 2.2 Elders/Leaders Elders are generally respected for their cultural knowledge and leadership abilities and for making decisions on behalf of the community (CFCA 2014) It is very important to be extremely respectful when speaking with elders, as they are usually the most respected within the community. Remember they are also generally making the decision on behalf of the community, respecting them will help a lot. It is important to note that the elders are usually a small group, and although elderly members of the community have a lot of respect they are not the ones making the decisions. In the western world diversity, has been shown to improve productivity within some workplaces. This is because people from different backgrounds will generally have different perspectives on solving the same problem, thus meaning finding an effective, safe, sustainable, cheap and respectful product can be achieved in a more efficient manner. Anything developed with or for local indigenous communities are generally affected by several things regarding the community; the needs and culture of the community, how they live and their location. If and only if the engineers understand this completely will the project be able to be completed within a respectful way. 4.1 Consultation It is important to note that the consultation process will also be very different with Aboriginal communities. Depending on the community, how it is set out and the elders of said community every consultation will be different. It will also need to be presented in a different way minimalizing difficult language to avoid any language barriers and using diagrams, tables and/or media wherever possible. One of the main problems that may come up past this phase is due to positioning of a project, it may coincide with one or more of the following: Sacred trees, burial grounds or any places that have spiritual or social significance. It is important to consider these when speaking with the elders. In this section respond to the following: How could culture and diversity affect any engineering solutions you develop for/with local indigenous communities in Australia and the location of the Major EWB Project? Include reference to appropriate engineering solutions in your response to this. HINT:For engineers to develop appropriate engineering solutions for a community they must understand the community, their needs, how they live, their culture, their location etc. By understanding the community, Engineers can develop solutions that are appropriate and will be used. One solution is not appropriate for all. Why it is important that the decisions and recommendations you make in the Major EWB Project and also as a professional engineer clearly uphold the Institute of Engineers Australia Code of Ethics? The conclusion is a summary of important points already raised in the report and how they fit together. Do not introduce new information here. < http://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/indigenous-australian-languages> < http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-indigenous-cultural-heritage> < https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/strengths-australian-aboriginal-cultural-practices-fam/theme-3-elderly-family-members> CFCA < http://www.supportingcarers.snaicc.org.au/connecting-to-culture/cultural-protocols/> < https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/151923/communicating.pdf> Please note, this is not 100% complete and Im aware that references are not completed correctly. More references and facts will be included in the final.

Concepts of Computer Networking

Concepts of Computer Networking CHAPTER 1: NETWORKING CONCEPTS NETWORKING BASICS: At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers connected to each other by a cable that allows them to share data. All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated stems from that simple system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable may not seem extraordinary, inretrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in communications. Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion. Personal computers are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow users to share that data efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to print out documents or copy document files to a disk for others to edit or use them. If others made changes tothe document, there was no easy way to merge the changes. This was, and still is, known as working in a stand-alone environment. TYPES OF NETWORKS: Computer networks can be categorized in the following types. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN): A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet . The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN): MAN stands for metropolitan area network .It is a network of devices within an area of one to ten kilometers or with in a city. It may be a single network such as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN): A WAN stand for wide area network .It is spread through out the world. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network. It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet. INTRANET: Anintranetis a privatecomputer networkthat usesInternet Protocoltechnologies to securely share any part of an organizations information or operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast tointernet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organizations internalwebsite, but may be a more extensive part of the organizations information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration. EXTRANET: Anextranetis a private network that usesInternet protocols,networkconnectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a companysintranetthat is extended to users outside the company, usually via theInternet. It has also been described as a state of mind in which the Internet is perceived as a way to do business with a selected set of other companies (business-to-business, B2B), in isolation from all other Internet users. In contrast,business-to-consumer(B2C) models involve known servers of one or more companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users. INTERNETWORK: An Internetwork is a collection of two or more LANs connected by WANs. Internworks are referred to interchangeably as data networks or simply networks. The most popular internetwork is the Internet which is open to public. COMPONENTS OF NETWORK: A data communication system has two main components:- HARDWARE COMPONENTS: Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the network Hradware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, a PC or swtich etc used to connect the devices. Ocassionally some components might not be so visible. DEVICES: Devices of the network can be of two types that are the end devices and the intermediary devices, we explain both the types:- END USER DEVICES: An end use device refers to a piece of equipment that is either the ousce or the destination of a message on a network. Network users usaully only see or touch an end device, which is most often a computer. Another can generic term for an end device that sends or receives messages is a host. E.g host and end devices are Printers, Computers, Scanners, Webcams etc. INTERMEDIARY DEVICES: Intermediary devices connect the indivisual hosts to the network or can connect multiple networks to form an internetwork. Intermediary devices are not all the same. Some work inside the LAN to perfom switching functions and others help route messages between networks. Example of intermediary devices are Switches, Hubs and Routers etc. NETWORK MEDIA: Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from source to destination. The three main types of media in use in a network are: COPPER: A twisted pair cable usually used as a medium inside a LAN environment. FIBEROPTICS: Made up of glass or plastic fibers in a vinyl coating usually used for long runs in a LAN and as a trunk. WIRELESS: It connects local users through air using electromagnetic waves. SOFTWARE COMPONENTS: Software components can be divided in to two parts, services and processes. SERVICES: A network service provide information in responce to a request. Services include many of the common netowrk applications people use every day, like e-mail hosting services and web hosting services. For an instance we can take example of YAHOO enterprise, they provide mail services as well as web services, there are a number of companies offering these kind of services. PROCESSES: Processes provide the funtionality that directs and moves the messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us ut are critical to the opeation of networks. For example viewing a webpage invokes one network process, clicking on a hyperlink causes a web browser to communicate with a web server, in the same way many network processes can take place at the same time. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES: Topology of a network is the geometrical representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES: There are four basic physical topologies possible mesh, star, bus, and ring. MESH TOPOLOGY: In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point to point connection to every other device .A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices . STAR TOPOLOGY: In star topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only to a central controller usually called a hub . The devices are not directly connected to each other .Unlike a mesh topology ,a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices the controller acts as an exchange : if one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the other connected device. BUS TOPOLOGY: A bus topology on the other hand is multi point one long cable acts as a back bone to link all the devices in a network nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps a drop line is a connection running between the devices and the main cable a tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. RING TOPOLOGY: In a ring topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either side of it . A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches to its destination protocols. LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES: The Logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. There are two main types of logical topologies: SHARED MEDIA TOPOLOGY: In a shared media topology, all the systems have the ability to access the physical layout whenever they need it. The main advantage in a shared media topology is that the systems have unrestricted access to the physical media. Of course, the main disadvantage to this topology is collisions. If two systems send information out on the wire at the same time, the packets collide and kill both packets. Ethernet is an example of a shared media topology. TOKEN BASED TOPOLOGY: The token-based topology works by using a token to provide access to the physical media. In a token-based network, there is a token that travels around the network. When a system needs to send out packets, it grabs the token off of the wire, attaches it to the packets that are sent, and sends it back out on the wire. As the token travels around the network, each system examines the token. When the packets arrive at the destination systems, those systems copy the information off of the wire and the token continues its journey until it gets back to the sender. When the sender receives the token back, it pulls the token off of the wire and sends out a new empty token to be used by the next machine. PROTOCOLS: In information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon, which was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents) is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard. NETWORK PROTOCOLS: For devices to communicate over the network, they must follow different protocols that perform the many tasks to be completed. The protocols define the following: The format of the message The way intermediary dvices share information about the path to the destination The method to handle update messages between intermediary devices The process to initiate and terminate communications between hosts INTERACTION OF PROTOCOLS: Interaction between protocols can be clearly understood by a simple example, the way that a web server and a web client interacts. HTTP defines the formatting and content of the requests and responses exchanged between the client and server. Both the client and server implements HTTP as part of the application. The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern how the message are transported between the client and server. TCP is the transport protocol that divides the HTTP messages in to smaller pieces to be sent to the destination client, it is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the client and the server. Another protocol called IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate addresses and selecting the best path to the destination host. TECHNOLOGY INDEPENDENT PROTOCOLS: Protocols that guide the network data are not dependent on any specific technology to carry out the task. Protocols describe what must be done to communicate, not how the task is to be completed.This is the reason that enables different kind of devices such as telephones and computers to use the same network infrasturcture to communicate. PROTOCOLS AND REFRENCE MODELS: Networking professionals use two networking models to comminicate within the industry, they are protocol models and reference models. Both were created in the 1970s. A protocol model is a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarhical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality required to interface the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols with in the protocol suite. A refrence model provides a common referecen for maintaining the consistency within alkl types ofn etwork protocols and services. The primary function of a refercen model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and process involved. The OPEN SYSTEMS INERCONNECTION (OSI) the most well known reference model. OSI MODEL: In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange information. APPLICATION LAYER: The topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference models application layer on the receiving computer. PRESENTATION LAYER: The presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the networks translator. When computers from dissimilar systems need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computers application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted. SESSION LAYER: The session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network. TRANSPORT LAYER: The transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it. NETWORK LAYER: The network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data. DATA LINK LAYER: The data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. The electrical representation of the data is known to this layer only. PHYSICAL LAYER: The bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers. TCP/IP MODEL: The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layers: NETWORK ACCESS: Network access layer communicates directly with the network. It provides the interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer. INTERNET: The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. Router are protocol dependent, they function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another. Several protocols work within the Internet layer. TRANSPORT: The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model, is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on the requirements of the transmission. APPLICATION: Corresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. It contains all the higher-level protocols. COMPARISON BETWEEN OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL: The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service. The differece between OSI and TCP/IP model is that the Application layer of TCP/IP model operates at the upper three layers of OSI model, they are application layer, presentation layer and session layer, also the Network layer of TCP/IP model works at the lower two layers of OSI model that are, data link layer and physical layer. TCP/IP PROTOCOL The TCP/IP suite of protocols is the set of protocols used to communicate across the internet. It is also widely used on many organizational networks due to its flexibility and wide array of functionality provided. Microsoft who had originally developed their own set of protocols now is more widely using TCP/IP, at first for transport and now to support other services. SOME IMPORTANT TCP/IP PROTOCOLS: INTERNET PROTOCOLv4 (IP): Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the packet so that it can be routed through the network using dynamic routing tables. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for time to live). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 seconds or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent lost or damaged data packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network. When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network. IPV4 HEADER: The key fields of the ipv4 are as follows:- SOURCE ADDRESS: Senders ip address DESTINATION ADDRESS : Receivers ip address TIME TO LIVE (TTL): Numeber of hops a packet must traverse before getting discarded. TYPE OF SERVICE (TOS): It is for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it makes its way through an internet. PROTOCOL: This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. FLAG AND FRAGMENT: A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments VERSION: Protocol version. INTERNET HEADER LENGTH: The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bitwordsin the header. PACKET LENGTH: This 16-bit field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes. ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP): Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware addresses (MAC addresses) that correspond to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information address is stored in the routers cache. HEADER: Some important fields of ARPs header are as follows:- HARDWARE TYPE: This field specifies the Link Layer protocol type PROTOCOL TYPE: This field specifies the upper layer protocol for which the ARP request is intended HARDWARE LENGTH: Length of a hardware address PROTOCOL LENGTH: Length (in octets) of alogical addressof the specified protocol OPERATION: Specifies the operation that the sender is performing SENDER HARDWARE ADDRESS: Hardware (MAC) address of the sender. SENDER PROTOCOL ADDRESS: Upper layer protocol address of the sender. TARGET PROTOCOL ADDRESS: Hardware address of the intended receiver. TARGET HARDWARE ADDRESS: Upper layer protocol address of the intended receiver. TRANSMISSION CONTROL (TCP): The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a three-way handshake. This establishes the port number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides of the transmission. HEADER: Following are some important fields of TCP header: SOURCE PORT: Identifies the sending port. DESTINATION PORT: Identifies the receiving port. SEQUENCE NUMBER: This is the initial sequence number. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER: A 32 bit acknowledgement number. DATA OFFSET: Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP): A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send the data and to verify that the destination host actually receives the data. UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports; therefore, they can use the same numbers without interference. HEADER: Some key headers of UDP are as follows: SOURCE PORT: This field identifies the sending port. DESITNATION PORT: This field indentifies the receiving port LENGTH: A 16-bit field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagram CHECKSUM: The 16-bitchecksumfield is used for error-checking of the headeranddata. NETWORK ADDRESSING: There are millions of computers in use on the web and billions of messages traversing networks at any given time, so prper addresing is essential to make sure that the sent messages arrives intact at the proper destination. Addressing of data happens in three different layers of the OSI model. The PDU at each layer adds address information for use by the peer layer at the destination. CHAPTER 2: ROUTING Fundamentals ROUTING: Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks such as the Internet, and transportation networks. Our main concern will be routing in packet switched networks. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. TYPES OF ROUTING: STATIC ROUTING: Static routing is manually adding routes to the routing table, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined nodes, traffic will not be rerouted. This means that anything that wishes to take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes make sense and can even improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub networks and default routes. DYNAMIC ROUTING: Dynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more robust. Static routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static manner so network routes for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become unreachable. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. Dynamic routing uses routing protocols for routing information automatically over the internertwork. STATIC VS DYNAMIC ROUTING: Before going further we need to examine the difference between static and dynamic routing. ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Before going in to the details of dynamic routing we must understand what are routing protocols. Routing protocols implement algorithms that tell routers the best paths through internetworks. Routing protocols provide the layer 3 network state update. In short, routing protocols route datagrams through a network. Routing is a layer 3 function, thus, routing and routed protocols are network-layer entities. Routing tables on the layer 3 router are populated by information from routing protocols. A routed protocol will enter an interface on a router, be placed in a memory buffer, then it will be forwarded out to an interface based on information in the routing table TYPES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Dynamic routing protocols can be divided in to the following broad catagories. CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS: CLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates. This was at the time when network address were allocated on the basis of classes i.e A, B or C. These routing prtocols did not include subnet mask in routing update because the the network mask was determined by first octet of the network address. Classfull routing protocols can still be used in todays networks but they cannot be used in all situations because they do not include the subnet mask. Classfull routing protocols cannot be used where the network is subnetted using more then one subnet mask, in other words we can say that classfull routing protocols do not support variable-lenght subnet mask (VLSM). In the following figure the classfull version of the network support similar subnet masks i.e all /24. CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS:

Bram Stoker’s Dracula Essay -- English Literature

Bram Stoker’s Dracula Bram Stoker’s Dracula is a classic example of Gothic writing. Gothic writing was very popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the early centuries, Gothic writing would frighten the audience and it was also used as a style of architecture. Dracula, which was first published in 1897, would definitely cause a shock as there was a supernatural being, roaming around sucking people’s blood by the neck. Gothic literature usually includes vampires, monsters or some type of ancient mystical creature. It is also set in medieval castles with secret passages, dungeons and ghost places. There are various types of Gothic literature such as romance and horror. There is just usually horror used but mixing both has also become very popular. Romance on its own was very well-liked in the 19th century. The word Gothic actually comes from the Goths language. A Goth was considered one of a German tribe who invaded Eastern and Western Europe. Gothic was a type of architecture prevalent in Western Europe in the 12th - 16th centuries, it was barbarous, rude and uncouth. Dracula contains a lot Gothic conventions which incite the reader. A convention is the main point of a specific type of writing, for example in Dracula there is the use of journeys/quests, diaries, letters, journals, weird places and strange creatures. These conventions are essential in the story of Dracula and it is important to understand them. Dracula, just like any other gothic piece of writing has a villain/vampire-Dracula, a hero-Jonathan Harker and a victim-Mina. Van Helsing also plays a main role as the slayer of Dracula. Chapter 1, like a lot of the other chapters is written in journal style. This journal is of the main ... ...safe and also the plan to kill Dracula. There is more than one convention but still it will not excite the reader as much as the other chapters. Bram Stoker has created such an effective piece of Gothic Writing as the reader can feel how it would be if they were in the same predicament as some of the characters such as Mina and Jonathan. The conventions express one’s feelings out clear like all the opinions in the journals and the letters to each other. Suspense and fear are something that people express in their own way, not everyone can find the same thing frightening. Some people may just be scared of seeing Dracula and the way he kills everyone by sucking their blood, other people may fear turning into a vampire or becoming a victim. He tries to make us see how it would feel like, if there was a blood thirsty monster staring at you, ready to pounce!

Against Nuclear Tests :: essays research papers

On the morning of August 6, 1945, first ever nuclear armed force was carried out by the United States of America in Japan. Three days later, another one was dropped. Hiroshima and Nagasaki have suffered nuclear explosions, causing immediate deaths of around 100,000 to 200,000 people and even more over time which was and remains controversial. Nuclear warhead is a device which ejects radioactive isotopes (massive heat) with a diameter as large as a metropolis within fraction of a second killing everyone around it. Countries spend dollars on these nukes which in turn kills thousands of innocent people, the aftermath of its devastating force contaminate the environment, and may very well cause mutation on humans. These are the reasons why no country should practice any nuclear devices for any purpose. Country spends billions of dollars to develop nuclear tests which will benefit no one on this planet. Each country strives to be superior to others by developing stronger armed devices which other countries cannot counteract. This concludes that there are no other vital uses for these warheads other than war. The quantity of lives lost in wars cannot be compared to the elimination of nuclear bomb. There are people who are against wars and families who live peacefully still suffer. Also many children’s lives that have no conscious of what is happening are being destroyed. It’s not right for the innocent people to suffer for other’s wrong actions. It’s a matter of seconds that such device can destroy a city. The purpose this device holds for developed countries is to kill, but from the perspectives of third world countries, it’s all bad news for the nature of this planet. Plants cannot be sowed around the area of Hiroshima. It has been 60 years and the soil is still radioactive. After the bombing of Japan, residues of the bomb float around in the atmosphere and may very well blown to other country and affect other people. This device limits land usage and also clearing of trees and plants (deforestation). Habitats are destroyed as well as families and animals are lost. If several more bombs were dropped, the planet would become off balance. Then humans as well as animals cannot live on Earth. The death toll of nuclear bombing will always be uncertain. This is not an average explosion where victims can walk away with minor injuries. The explosion gives off Uranium or Plutonium rays which will penetrate through human skins and either destroys or does severe damage to the body’s DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).

Audio Production

For my paper I chose the audio production and engineering relating to the Music field. Music is not only beats and rhymes; it is a statement of life, and now days a way to make a fortune. It relaxes, motivates and is a great hobby for the idol one. In addition to this Music has been around for more than a thousand years and has a very colossal impact on every existing culture while still developing with new innovative sounds, techniques and not to mention jobs. Today there are over 2 million jobs in the audio production and engineer field. People use music to relax and express one’s self as well as their culture. Take the Native Americans as well as Africans Americans for example. They are infamous in using drums to beat for entertainment at gatherings. Denying that music is not a form of popular culture in my opinion is asinine. Over the broad plans of the scorching hot plantations which the field workers in the 1600’s worked; under these extreme inhumane living conditions the slaves were subjected to, they would hum tunes that would get them through their times of atrocity and calamity. With over a billion songs in existence today, it is hard to imagine that anyone has never heard a song before and for most people inspired by at least one of them. There is a big controversy stating that rap music has, and is still influencing our younger generation and to certain amplitude I agree. The jails across America are being filled to capacity over violent confrontations in our streets. Many killings are occurring after bar and nightclub shootings from local gang members using drugs and playing rap music. Some of the music being listened to is introducing children to drugs sex and jail could this be all bad? Surly not! Studying the lyrics to some of your most hated rap songs my just provide you with some of the problems our society faces and the solutions that will help us surmount them.

Why Company Go Public

REASON FOR PT. BANK CENTRAL ASIA, Tbk TO GO PUBLIC INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERING William1140004383 BINUS BUSINESS SCHOOL PROGRAM STUDI MAGISTER MANAJEMEN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT BINUS UNIVERSITY JAKARTA 2010 List of Content List of Content2 Definition3 Reasons for listing3 Advantages of an IPO5 Disadvantages of an IPO5 Procedure6 Bank Central Asia History7 Bibliography9 Definition An initial public offering (IPO) or stock market launch is, as it sounds, the first sale of a company’s shares to the public and the listing of the shares on a stock exchange. In the UK, IPOs are often referred to as flotation. IPO was originally an American term but is now used across all world markets. The shares offered may be existing ones held privately, or the company may issue new shares to offer to the public. Companies choose to offer shares to the public to raise new capital for the company; to widen the shareholder base of the company; to give the shareholders a liquid market in which to trade their share; achieve the publicity that a public listing brings. Companies might choose to list on the market by a private placing of shares to institutions rather than a public offering. There have been several online flotation sometimes referred to as EPOs (Electronics Public Offerings). Many companies that undertake an IPO also request the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter to help them correctly assess the value of their shares, that is, the share price. Whoever is raising the funds, the process of flotation is arduous, involves significant time commitments from the company’s management and advisor (investment bankers, stockbrokers and solicitors amongst others), and is not cheap. This effort is expended in order to raise the cash required at a price that keeps both the vendor and the purchaser of the shares happy. Reasons for listing When a company lists its securities on a public exchange, the money paid by investors for the newly issued shares goes directly to the company (in contrast to a later trade of shares on the exchange, where the money passes between investors). An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap a wide pool of investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt or working capital. A company selling common shares is never required to repay the capital to investors. Once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares via a secondary offering, thereby again providing itself with capital for expansion without incurring any debt. This ability to quickly raise large amounts of capital from the market is a key reason many companies seek to go public. The three main interested parties in an IPO (the vendor, the company, and the investor) have complementary objectives. The Company will want to: * Maximize proceeds * Build broad and stable ownership base Raise its profile * Facilitate future fund raising and possibly future acquisitions * Ensure that there is a good liquidity in secondary market trading * Be seen as launching a successful IPO. The Vendor, or selling shareholder, wants to: * Maximize proceeds * Maximize value of retained interest/share price performance * Be seen as part of a successful transaction Investors will want to: * Maximize sh are price return (short and long-term) * Broaden and diversify portfolio * Accumulate a position not easily found in the secondary market Companies undertake an IPO for one of two reasons: To raise capital for the company’s use (a ‘primary’ offering). * To raise funds for the existing shareholders (including venture capitalist and governments, as in privatizations, etc. ) (a ‘secondary’ offering). The terms primary offering or primary issue and secondary offering or secondary issue are often used to classify the recipient of the proceeds. Proceeds from a primary offering go to the company – it creates and issues new shares for sale to the public. Secondary offering sells existing shares to the public. Many IPOs combine primary and secondary offerings. In general, capital raising IPOs are undertaken in order to: * Raise cash in order to expand the business of the company, or * Reduce the debt levels (leverage or gearing) of the company. The decision to go public for many companies is a strategic decision, not just a fund raising decision. The IPO process can be a catalyst for developing the company’s strategy more fully. It can also be seen as the final step in the financial development of a company. Reasons for secondary sales include: * Sale by entrepreneur * Succession * Tax and other personal reasons * ‘Cashing in’ * Sale by professional investors Venture capitalists and private investors seeking an ‘exit’ * Reverse LBOs * Funds required by parent company/major shareholder * Demutualization and introductions * Privatizations of state-owned enterprises. * Raising funds for the treasury. * Imposing private market disciplines on management and workers – thereby increasing efficiency and serv ice to customers. * Fostering a shareholders democracy. * Winning votes (although this is not explicitly stated). Advantages of an IPO The advantages of going public include: * Liquidity and increased share price * Management and employee motivation Enhanced image/prestige * Access to alternative source of capital * Ancillary benefits Advantages of investing internationally: * More securities and industries to choose from – even large markets don’t have shares in every sector. * Greater returns – many emerging markets provide higher rates of return than do more mature markets and some markets may not be as efficient as others, allowing professional investors an advantage. * Reduction of risk – not all national stock markets advance (or decline) at the same time. Therefore international diversification may reduce risk in an investor’s portfolio. Liquidity – some institutions demand significant liquidity in their portfolios, which can only be met by investing in the largest global companies. * Single European currency – many investors now look at the Eurozone as a single country for portfolio purposes. An investor in France, for example, no longer considers France to be his home market; the entire Eurozone is now treated as the domestic market. Disadvantages of an IPO There are several disadvantages to completing an initial public offering, namely: * Significant legal, accounting and marketing costs Ongoing requirement to disclose financial and business information * Meaningful time, effort and attention required of senior management * Risk that required funding will not be raised * Public dissemination of information which may be useful to competitors, suppliers and customers Disadvantages if selling to and maintaining an international investor base: * Cost and complexity * Increased disclosure requirements * Flow back Procedure The new issue process has five stages: * Corporate issues Some of general issues that company need to take care: The corporate structure and domicile will need to be determined. * Determining the timetable is also important. * Determining membership of the board of directors. * Employee participation. * Shareholder agreements and lockups. * Offering structure The main listing choices of offering structure that face a company are: * Which local exchange should it choose? * Should the company bypass the local market entirely? * Should the issuer consider multiple listings: in its home market and on an international exchange? * Regulation and documentation Marketing, pricing, and allocation In general marketing process consists of: * Pre-marketing * Developing the investment case * Preparing the market * Preparing the management * Initial research published (where permitted) * Marketing * Setting the price range * Filling the preliminary prospectus * Sales briefing * Roadshow and ‘one-on-one’ * Sales/research follow-up * Book building * Pricing and allocat ion * Setting the price There are three approaches to the pricing of an offering: * Book building * Fixed price * Auction/render offer * Allocation * Stabilization * Aftermarket The first question that needs to be answered when a company wants to do IPO is â€Å"is the company ready to go public? † Whether a company ready or not to go public is not determined by age, but determined on the ability to present a compelling investment case, which is made up of many components, chief among them being: * Capability of management * Financial track record * Industry prospects and growth potential * Position within industry/competition * Valuation/comparative value. The offering process for an IPO will be necessarily more complex than that of a secondary offering. Many of the strategic issues that need to be addressed only apply to companies issuing shares to the public for the first time. * Preparing the documentation is easier IPOs generally involve one or more investment banks known as â€Å"underwriters†. The company offering its shares, called the â€Å"issuer†, enters a contract with a lead underwriter to sell its shares to the public. The underwriter then approaches investors with offers to sell these shares. The sale (allocation and pricing) of shares in an IPO may take several forms. Common methods include: * Best efforts contract Firm commitment contract * All-or-none contract * Bought deal * Dutch auction Bank Central Asia History PT. Bank Central Asia was first found on 21 February 1957 as Bank Central Asia NV. A lot of things have happened since then – the most significant of all being perhaps the Asian monetary crisis in 1997. Here are the histories of BCA from 1997 until BCA do the IPO in May 2000: * 14-15 November 1997, BCA’s customer makes a rush of BCA because Soedono Salim alias Liem Sioe Liong, its majority shareholder, rumored dead. The new rush subsides after Liem appear in public. 18 May 1998 until beginning of June 1998 BCA’s customer back to panic after the riots of May, so do the rush. As a result, BCA limiting customer withdrawals, via cashier Rp. 5 million, Rp. 500 thousand v ia ATM Silver, and ATM Gold is Rp. 1 million. * 28 May 1998, BCA officially became â€Å"patient† of Badan Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional (BPPN). Bank of Indonesia inject funds up to 200 percent of BCA’s capital. Badan Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional (BPPN) took over the authority of directors and commissioners of BCA and form a team led by Director of Bank BRI, DE Setiyoso. 25 August 1998, Government announced that the deadline of completion of Bantuan Liquiditas Bank Indonesia (BLBI) by the old owner is 21 September 1999. * 22 September 1998, Head of BPPN, Glenn MS Yusuf, states that Salim Group accept the obligation to pay Rp. 35 trilliun to his side. With this agreement, the shares of the Salim Group transferred to BPPN with its cash and property. The government has 92. 8 percent shares of BCA and the rest is owned by Salim Group and several other parties. * 29 September 1998, Head of BPPN, Glenn MS Yusuf, said the government will inject capital considered sufficient to meet the category of healthy banks. This funding will be converted into shares of government. * 23 April 1999, BPPN said government would sell its share in BCA to the public and after that the shares will be offered to the strategic investors. * 4 February 2000, BCA register its plan for sell the shares to Badan Pengawas Pasar Modal. BCA plans to sell 42 percent of its share. * 22 February 2000, BPPN suddenly delaying the implementation of BCA share offering to the fiscal year 2000 (April – December 2000) with reason that the BCA’s IPO preparation need more time. 3 March 2000, BPPN declared that BPPN unsure to get Rp. 3 trillion from these stock offering. * 10 April 2000, President Director of BCA, DE Setijoso, declared the maximum number of shares of BCA’s share that offered by Badan Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional (BPPN) reached 883. 2 million shares. While the range of BCA’s share on IPO ranges from Rp. 1. 350 – Rp. 1. 750 per sheet. It means, the maximum acquisition target of BPPN r eached Rp. 1. 5456 trillion about half of the target. * 27 April 2000, BPPN officially returns BCA from BPPN to BI. With this return to BI BCA, then BCA became the first bank that came back from recovery state of BPPN. From the history of BCA from 14 November 1997 to 27 April 2000, we can conclude that reason for BCA to go public is because of the crisis that happened in BCA that happen 2 times that caused by: 1. Soedono Salim alias Liem Sioe Liong, its majority shareholder, rumored dead. 2. The riots in May 1998. So that BCA need to go public to get fund injection to recover the financial condition of BCA. Bibliography Geddes, Ross. IPOs and equity offerings. Burlington : Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003. financeglossary† Great Investor Network. 7 January 2011 â€Å"::BCA::† PT. Bank Central Asia. 7 January 2011 â€Å"Tempointeractive. com – Perjalanan BCA sejak 1997† Tempo Interaktif 26 Februari 2002. 7 January 2011 â€Å"Initial Public Offering† Wikipedia. 7 January 2011 â€Å"Bank Central Asia† Wikipedia. 7 January 2011