Machiavellian Monkeys, James Shreeve, Discover, June 1991 Essay

â€Å"The sneaky skills of our primate cousins suggest that we may owe  our great intelligence to an inherited need to deceive.†Ã‚  Machiavellian Monkeys, James Shreeve, Discover, June 1991. Fraud. Deception. Infidelity. Theft. When these words are spoken, or read, the first thought is of human traits. Not once would someone think of animals as being capable of such actions, but people forget that humans are animals, and that the human animal evolved from a creature that had common ancestry with the great apes. Is it surprising then that these seemingly humanistic traits are found in primates? James Shreeve discusses the findings of hundreds of primatologists, which support the notion of Machiavellian intelligence in primates. He studied Machiavellian Intelligence in baboons, chimps, lemurs and lorises, and concluded that social primates exhibit this intelligence and those that live in small groups or in solitude do not. First, let’s examine the term Machiavellian. The dictionary definition is: characterized by subtle or unscrupulous cunning, deception, expediency, or dishonesty. By suggesting Machiavellian intelligence, Shreeve implies that these types of behaviour are not simply conditioned responses to stimuli, but conscious thought. This might not be blatantly obvious as important to physical anthropology, but it does suggest a number of important ideas as to the development of man. Lesser primates, such as lemurs and lorises, do not exhibit any type of deceptive traits, but when more advanced primates are examined, it can be seen that as the size of the brain increases, there are increasingly more complicated tactics used to deceive others of their own species. It is interesting to note that humans have brains roughly three times larger than  would be expected, and also exhibit the most complex Machiavellian behaviours. An important observation that Shreeve points out is that primates such as the orang-utan, who lead solitary lives and have no need for social skills, do not exhibit any signs of Machiavellian traits. This observation, together with the observation of brain size and primate order, suggests that Machiavellian behaviour may not be a result of intelligence, but was, actually, an important factor in the development of it. For example, a creature that is able to consciously deceive others in order to get food or breed has a distinct advantage over those who do not. When considered with the need for large social groups, this ability of deception and trickery becomes even more important which can help explain why humans have evolved with their huge brains. Humans could not have become as successful as they have without incredible social skills, including those skills considered Machiavellian. Shreeve notes that this is also consistent with chimpanzees, who have a great advantage with these abilities. The advantage is a result of their social structure (large groups that constantly vary) meaning that there would be no advantage if chimpanzees lived solitary lives. If there is any doubt that Machiavellian intelligence gives an individual a greater chance of surviving and reproducing, the case of concealment, as observed with stump-tailed macaques and hamadryas baboons leaves no doubt. By concealing their relationship with, arousal by, or physical nearness to the potential mate from the dominant male(s), an individual finds breeding is possible; without this intelligence, it would be far less likely, if not impossible. Although Machiavellian behaviour is somewhat controversial in terms of it being human nature, it does seem to indicate intelligence not so different than that found in the great apes. Perhaps this is why people tend to resist the idea that humans are fundamentally Machiavellian in nature; it is behaviour that seems too animalistic. It does seem, though, that the exact  opposite could be true: Machiavellian behaviour is humanistic behaviour evident in the animals we call primates. No matter how we look at it, the fact remains that the observation of this type of behaviour in primates is significant to physical anthropology.

Songs of Silence

Songs of Silence – LITERATURE NOTES ABOUT CURDELLA FORBES * Born in Claremont, Hanover, in Jamaica. * Taught at the University of the West Indies from 1990 to 1995. * She is currently a professor of Caribbean Literature at Howard University. CURDELLA FORBES' NOVELS * Songs of Silence, 2003 * Flying with Icarus, 2003 * A Permanent Freedom, 2008 * From Nation to Diaspora: Samuel Selvon, George Lamming And the Cultural Performance of Gender, 2005 SUMMARY The book is about the recollections of a female narrator called Marlene (Nice).Her recollections are dispersed chronologically, and appear to have no rational order, but many of the same characters can be found in most of the ‘stories', which occur in and around the same district. SETTING * Rural Jamaica. * Recollections/ stories are set in the 1960's. MAJOR CHARACTERS: Marlene, Effita, No Name, Nathan, Miss Minnie, Raymond, Ionie, Maas Barber, Long Man, Cudjoe Man, Dolly, Minna, Mr. Papacita. RECOLLECTIONS/ STORIES 1. â₠¬ËœEFFITA' This is a recollection of the Sunday ritual of taking food to Aunt Sare. Her habit of praying for the carrier of the food is explored in great detail.The comedic telling of Effie's death announcements is another detail that is explored. We learn what happens when she gives a wrong announcement for Melwyn, and no announcement for Son Son. This recollection ends with Effie's death in 1995, with the implication that few people attended her funeral, despite the fact that most of the people in the district were related. SETTING: Green Town, Maaga Bay, Lucea, Montego Bay. CHARACTERS: Marlene/ Nice – the protagonist and narrator. Effita – the person who did informal death announcements for the district.Son Son – the narrator's male schoolmate who died, also Effie's nephew. Melwyn – Marlene's cousin who was shot by Chisel Bwoy, then given an incorrect death announcement by Effie. Aunt Sare – the elderly lady who was a mid-wife. She would pray fo r every child that delivered food for her. Ionie – Marlene's mother Chisel Bwoy – the police constable who shot Melwyn Miss Zeta – the shop owner. Maas Levi – the only person in the district with a car, an old Chevrolet that the villagers called ‘May Reach'. Mass Rat – the carpenter and coffin maker. Miss Herfa – Man Teacher's wife and a teacher herself.Man Teacher – the principal of the local school. THEMES – death, old age. 2. ‘A STORY WITH NO NAME' This is the story of a lady with no name. It is reputed that she was abandoned by her wealthy family. She is an anomaly in the district because she is high coloured, did not speak, was very expressive in church before her silence, and was reclusive. She put her reclusive nature on pause once a month, when she went to town in order to visit the post office to collect packages. The story gets interesting when she got pregnant and no-one knew the father.The child became h er life, and she shared him with no one, but kept him to herself. He turned out to be even more silent than his mother. It was, however, rumoured that Maas Barber, Marlene's father, was the child's father. In between the telling of this story, is Marlene's explanation of her own silence. SETTING: Tam Briscoe Hill, Baltree District, CHARACTERS Marlene/ Nice – the protagonist and narrator. No Name – the light skinned lady who was related to the Briscoes (rich landowners in the district)Ionie – Marlene's mother. Maas Barber – Marlene's father. Magsie – Marlene's sister.Long Man – a traveler who used to pass through the district and stay at the narrator's house. Luce Blagrove – the person who spread the rumour that Paul was Maas Barber's child. Miss Clemmy – the lady who ran the post office. Paul – No Name's son. Evert Briscoe – He was the only member of the Briscoe family who came home sometimes, he owned the piece o f hill and the land that Maas Barber oversaw. THEMES: Racism, Alienation, Women in Society, Silence 3. ‘NATHAN' This is the story of Nathan, Marlene's brother. They were two years apart and were different from their other siblings because they were companions silence.Details are told of Nathan's extreme ‘tightness', or thriftiness, versus his sister's need to give everything away. He eventually married a woman whom he adored, despite the fact that she was very loud, and had three children. Marlene describes Nathan as a very stubborn man. She reports a particular incident with an MP where he won a substantial settlement due to his stubbornness. Marlene maintains that they still have a good relationship. Great details are given about Marlene's silence, along with her struggle to accept her brothers when/ while they were going through puberty. SETTING: Baltree DistrictCHARACTERS Marlene – The narrator. Nathan – Marlene's brother who was stubborn and very quiet . Everette – Marlene's sister who likes to go to court to listen to the cases. Marlene heard the story of Nathan's altercation with the MP from her. Tony -Marlene's older brother. MP – The person that Nathan got in a fight with and received a settlement. THEMES: Love and family relationship, silence. 4. ‘THE IDIOT' This recollection speaks about school and education. It begins with the story of Ionie's pride taking a beating when she had to ask some-one, whom she had previously snobbed, for help.The story continues with Marlene explaining why she liked school. She speaks of her two scholastic rivals, Ezekiel and Wellesley, as well as the class dunce, Bas. She explains the phenomena of partially going to school due to farming responsibilities. We then learn that, in high school, she was the only person that would grudgingly speak to Ezekiel, who eventually dropped out of school. He ended up being very successful and Marlene felt bad because she did not treat him w ell. SETTING: Maggoty, Black Shop, St. James, St. Andrew. CHARACTERSMarlene – The narrator, extremely bright, was placed above her age range, in the class, due to her strong scholastic ability. Magsie – Marlene's older sister. Bathsheba Watkiss – Ezekiel Watkiss' sister and a teacher. Miss Herfa – A teacher and Man Teacher's wife. Man Teacher – The principal. Pa Brown – The man who Ionie snubbed, and he had to help her to cross the river. Ezekiel Watkiss (Hog) – A student in the class who was her scholastic rival, despite not going to school consistently. Miss Celine – A teacher. Bas – the duncest boy in the class, did not attend school consistently.Wellesley Black (Goggleeye) – Another scholastic rival at school, he attended school regularly and was the correct age for the class. Nerissa Black – Wellesley's sister and a pupil teacher who taught the lower grades. THEMES: childhood lessons, education and soc iety, silence. 5. ‘MISS MINNIE' This is the story of Raymond and Miss Minnie. Miss Minnie got married to Lester after his girlfriend deserted him, as well as their young son Raymond. Miss Minnie was an extremely good mother to Raymond, making him the centre of her life, especially after Lester died.Raymond became a successful individual and took Miss Minnie with him to live in Kingston. Great changes occurred in Kingston because he met his mother and brothers, which created waves in the relationship between himself and Miss Minnie. She was eventually diagnosed with depression and low self esteem. This created another change in their relationship, to the point where Raymond would not allow another woman to get between him and Miss Minnie. Marlene declares that, based on this fact, she cannot wait on him because he will never marry as long as Miss Minnie is alive.SETTING: Baltree District, Lucea, Kingston. CHARACTERS: Marlene – The narrator, she was in a romantic relation ship with Raymond. Miss Minna – Raymond's step mother who made him her life, she sells in the market, went to live with Raymond in Kingston in order to take care of him. Lester – Raymond's father. He is very quiet and died while Raymond was still young, he was a shoe maker. Maas Baada – He read the newspaper to the men in the shoe shop and was affectionate towards Raymond, where his father was not.Raymond's mother – Rumoured that she was a go-go dancer, she left when Raymond was a young child, instigated a meeting with him when he was a successful adult, attempted to become a part of his life. Sam & Nichol – Raymond's half brothers, from his mother's side. THEME – Love and family relationship, silence. 6. ‘Morris Hole' This is the story of how Marlene lost the river. She explains what the river meant to her through her visual description of Morris Hole, as well as the activities that use to occur there.She lost the river when her mothe r abruptly told her that she could not use it, without any explanation. She then recounts her white ancestry, as well as the traumatic experiences associated with her paternal great grandparents. SETTING – Baltree District, Morris Hole. CHARACTERS Marlene – The narrator, she is entering puberty in this recollection. Miss Retinella Martin – Marlene's aunt. Munchie – Marlene's cousin. Ionie – Marlene's mother, she is grappling with her daughter entering puberty. Miss Clemmy, Miss Nellie – part of the group of Seventh Day Adventist women who wash by the river on Sunday mornings.Sister Sis – Marlene's great grandmother who did not know the father of her child, and therefore named Gussie Bugess. Maas Gussie Burgess – a very pretty man, tall and brown with nice hair, who lived in Maaga Bay, named as grandpa Eric's father. Granpa Eric – The ‘supposed' product of a union between Maas Gussie and Sister Sis. Puppa ; Mummah à ¢â‚¬â€œ Maas Barber's grandparents and his children's great grandparents, they are white. Maas Barber – Marlene's father. THEME: Race, loss of innocence. 7. ‘TRAVELLERS, OR FATHERS, OR LITTLE FOOL-FOOL' This is the story of different kinds of love.There is parental love, as represented by Cudjoe Man and Dolly. Cudjoe Man is admired throughout the district for his devotion to his mentally challenged daughter. He combs her hair, dresses her, provides for her every need and is extremely protective of her. He even disregards his attraction to Minna, a possible love match, in order to concentrate on his child. We also learn of a contrasting relationship between Minna and Samson. The romantic love between theses two people is polluted by physical abuse. This abuse is whispered throughout the district, but things come to a head when Samson beats Minna with such trength and aggression that she is hospitalized. This beating occurred because Minna got in a fight with Dottie over Cudjoe Man. This confirmed Samson's paranoia about Minnie cheating on him, and the result was beating her senseless, and then being attacked by Cudjoe-Man. Cudjoe Man ended up in jail and Dottie stayed with a family in the district until relatives from Kingston came to get her. SETTING: Baltree district, St. Ann, Green Town, Grant Ridge, Somerset St James CHARACTERS: Uncle Cuthbert (Cuttiie) – A traveller in his young days who told the children stories of his journeys.Cudjoe Man – A traveller who decided to stay in Baltree district and a devoted father to Dottie. Dolly (Fool-Fool/ Doll-Doll) – Cudjoe Man's mentally challenged daughter. Pappa Lazzy – The gentleman who gave Cudjoe-Man a place to rest before he decided to stay in Baltree district. Long Man – A consistent visitor/ traveller to Marlene's family. Lobie – He was famous in the district for his womanizing, began ‘noticing' Dottie. Big Man Cassels – Lobie's father, it was rumoured that he made inappropriate comments about Cudjoe Man and his daughter's relationship.Linval – Marlene's brother Miss Herfa – A teacher, Man Teacher's wife. Minna – Samson's girlfriend, flirted with Cudjoe Man, brutally beaten by Samson after the fight. Dottie – Cudjoe Man's girlfriend, fought with Minna when she heard of the flirting incident between Minna and Cudjoe Man. THEMES: Love, love and family relationship, women in society. 8. ‘SO FEW AND SUCH MORNING SONGS' Mr. Papacita's story tells of the great love that he has for his wife. They played together and were very romantic with each other. The story also highlights Mr.Papacita's beautiful voice, how he charmed everyone with it, how he lost it when his wife died, and regained it – to an extent – when he found the church. Mr. Papacita was a happy and carefree man when his wife was alive, but when she died, he became self destructive. He was always drunk, and literally pa ssed out in the road when he was on one of his drunken tirades. He spent three weeks in the hospital and came out a changed man. He became very quiet, and one day he surprised everyone by going to church, becoming baptized and regaining a bit of his beautiful voice. SETTING – Baltree district. CHARACTERS Mr.Papacita – Miss Aita's husband, he had a beautiful voice, lost himself to grieve initially, but eventually found the church. Miss Aita – Mr. Papacita's wife, she died of cancer. Miss Nellie – Town gossip. Maas Levi – Owner of the Chevrolet, the only car in the district. Maas Don – The taylor THEMES: Love, religion 9. ‘EPILOGUE: A BEGINNING' This epilogue takes the reader to the point at which Marlene is leaving the district to attend teachers' college in Kingston. She was afraid, excited and glad – all at the same time – at the prospect of leaving her home. She reflects that all the characters in her reflections are a part of her.GLOSSARY OF TERMS Ackee – A yellow fruit that, when cooked, looks like scrambled eggs. Blue Boot – Your best clothes. Bruk dung – Dilapidated. Bulla cake – A round, flat cake, that has the texture of a hard cookie. Bauxite – A reddish brown rock that was mined in Jamaica. Congotay – Deceitful or deceiver. Coolie royal hair – Hair type that is a cross between Indian and Black, leaning more towards Black, wild in nature. Cotta – A circular and twisted cloth that is placed on the head to cushion a load. Cry cree – To beg for mercy, usually used when people are playing.Cucumaka stick – A stick that comes from a tree, of the same name, that is believed to help in abortions, despite no scientific evidence to prove this. Dulcimina – A big, old fashioned looking suitcase. Duppy – A ghost Faas with – To trouble someone or get in their personal business. Facety – Describes a person th at is rude, or behaviour that is rude. Four eye – Word for some-one who is clairvoyant. Hootiah – A person who has not been well brought up. Jacket/ give jacket – To name a man as the father of a child when he is not, the child is the ‘jacket' that the man is given. ibber – to keep your mouth shut, not talk. Peenie-wallie – A firefly. Pickni – A small child. Gleaner – A local Jamaican newspaper. Maas – Mr. / Mister. Mirasmi – Malnutrition. Mouthamassy – someone who talks too much and gossips a lot. MP – Member of Parliament Pocomania – A religious cult that blends Christianity and African beliefs. It carries the stigma of obeah and is not widely accepted. Tegereg – A boisterous and uncouth person. UC – University of the West Indies Hospital. Yaws – A sore that has persisted for so long that it has become infected.

Discuss William Shakespeare's Othello, the Moor of Venice as a Tragedy Essay

Discuss William Shakespeare's Othello, the Moor of Venice as a Tragedy - Essay Example A person of great stature can be a tragic hero not anyone else and these guidelines were followed by almost all the great writers, this goes to show a lot about Aristotle and his achievements. William Shakespeare also incorporated Aristotle’s guidelines in his tragedies. Hamlet is a classic example of the same, Hamlet suffers all along in the tragedy, he was the tragic hero because he was a person with great stature, the Prince of Denmark. Aristotle also wrote about tragic flaws and how the same affected the tragic hero. This paper will shed light upon Othello and how the tragic hero suffers excessively in the tragedy. Othello is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. William Shakespeare is a household name and he has become a household name because of his exquisite work in literature. Othello is a masterpiece written by Shakespeare and this paper will shed more light upon this tragedy. Othello- The Tragic Hero The role of jealousy is crucial in Othello, human beings have a ll been gifted with very powerful emotions and jealousy is one really strong emotion which can have a lasting impact in a relationship, it can completely destroy a beautiful relationship and the same happens in Othello. The seed of jealousy once planted can have serious ramifications on a relationship. The most important thing is that jealousy does not remain jealousy in Othello, it very soon turns into anger and the same has serious impact on the lives of the characters in the tragedy. Everything revolves around the tragic hero and in this game the tragic hero is none other than Othello, his jealous and extremely possessive nature causes trouble beyond imagination in the tragedy. How Jealousy takes a toll on the Characters Every tragic hero suffers from a tragic flaw and the very same tragic flaw leads to the downfall of the tragic hero, it causes excessive suffering and pain beyond imagination. The tragic hero or the protagonist in this tragedy Othello suffers from the tragic flaw of jealously in the tragedy. Other characters are well aware that he is a very jealous man and they exploit his weakness to the fullest. Iago is the mastermind in the tragedy who tries to dethrone Othello; he exploits the jealous nature of Othello to turn his people against him. He creates several misunderstandings to put Othello in a fix and he succeeds in doing so on numerous occasions. Othello is very extremely possessive of his wife Desdemona and he often says â€Å"My Desdemona† in the tragedy. These words clearly show his obsession for his wife and the same obsession causes a lot of trouble in the tragedy. He firmly believes that he has won her; she was more like a trophy to him than a wife. Possessiveness is also a very big sign of jealously. This again goes to show the jealous nature of Othello, a major reason for his downfall was his jealous nature and there are no two ways about it. He is also an extremist and his behavior is also violent in the tragedy at times. H e loses his head when the handkerchief goes missing; his impulsive nature leads to his destructions. He is of swaying nature; he thinks that his wife has been unfaithful to him which again goes to show how he can easily be influenced by other people who he considers his well-wishers. His jealous nature comes to the forefront after the intervention of Iago, before his intervention there are no

Organisations Learning and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisations Learning and Development - Essay Example To help employees acquire these capabilities and to hone their existing skills, many organisations are investing heavily on learning and developmental activities, which will help in achieving changing organisational objectives. Learning and developmental activities are also employed to motivate and retain skilled and experienced employees, which will not only enhance organisational capabilities but also save costs. The present discussion is based on organisational learning and development at UK-based B&Q, a leader in do-it-yourself retail home improvement sector. B&Q is the biggest home improvement retailer in the United Kingdom and have maximum customers than any other retailer in this sector. B&Q offers more than 40,000 do-it-yourself (DIY) products, which certainly requires highly talented and skilled staff that prepares such diverse products. B&Q employs more than 25000 full time employees in their retail stores in the UK. Started in 1969 by Richard Block and David Quayle, this s tore has about 321 stores in the UK and more than 50 stores in Ireland and other countries. Apart from numerous other awards and recognitions, B&Q has been winning the Gallup Great Workplace award in 2010 for four consecutive years for highest employee engagement and productivity in the world. This exemplary performance of B&Q is credited to its employees’ contribution, which is supported and promoted by workplace policies and practices followed at B&Q. B&Q’s main office is located at Southampton, and is referred to as Store Support Office, from where their HR function provides specific learning and developmental opportunities and support to its employees in different locations. Their HR team works closely with organisation development team to improve performance through identifying, shaping and supporting initiatives meant for employee learning and development (About B&Q, n.d). Argyris (1999) emphasizes that contemporary management views effective organisational strat egy as that which promotes continual development of new understandings, models, and practices; this management aspect is referred to as organisational learning. From this perspective, organisational learning is one of the crucial tasks in strategic management. Organisations that encourage creativity, employee empowerment and involvement require employees to be continually learning and developing new skills and competencies that can help in their performance and contribution; this is more crucial for organisations that produce innovative products and services. Moreover, for employee empowerment to be effective, employees must have the knowledge and skills to make logical and correct business decisions. Although employees come with some learning through education and prior experience, learning at organisation should continue for many reasons. Workplace learning helps in maintaining high motivation and enthusiasm of the employees. This is demonstrated in statement made by Glendinning, the Business Services Manager in Finance department of B&Q: ‘It is a big part of my job to always be thinking ahead, to be able to analyse my current performance, to be a good team manager and of course to hit my sales targets. B&Q are a great support in getting

Human resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Human resources - Essay Example Noe, et.al, Human Resource Management: Gaining a Competitive Advantage Boston, McGraw-Hill, 2006). HR Skills Training: Job related skill development programs and education is important to be conducted on the employees to enhance and improve their knowledge and work skills. In order to execute tasks and assignments in an efficient manner, employees must achieve behavioural competencies. The training and development program helps employees to gain motivation and efficiently contribute to quality performance at a lower operational cost which leads to higher employee satisfaction and retention (M. Armstrong and S.Taylor, Armstrongs handbook of human resource management practice UK: Kogan Page Publishers, 2014). Remuneration: It refers to the compensation granted to the employees in return of the amount of output given by them during work performance and target achievement. These compensations are the salaries, wages, bonuses, benefits and perquisites in terms of cash and kind given to the employees. Employee Relations: This HRM function leads to better employee relation with the organization and the employer. This leads to motivation and maintenance of employee morale leading to higher productivity. Problem solving and following a specific organizational code of conduct are part of employee relationship maintenance (M. Armstrong and S.Taylor, Armstrongs handbook of human resource management practice UK: Kogan Page Publishers, 2014). Line managers have accountability for directly managing and supervising an employee or a team. They are answerable to the higher management authority on the employee performance and their well-being. The front line managers are also referred to as the line managers and have a supervisory role. They can also be team leaders and are appointed internally by the management, as well as they are represented as the

The purpose and history of penitentiaries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The purpose and history of penitentiaries - Essay Example Thereafter, the Samarian records stated that an individual was to face death penalty for murder trials. In the â€Å"Law of Eshunna†, the punishment was based on a person’s social class; that is, those of the lower class were punished differently from those in the upper class. This law covered every aspect of a person’s social life which included divorce, marriage, and loans. This essay will there discuss the purpose and history of penitentiaries in depth, giving an analysis on how some people were punished for their wrong deeds. During the ambitious age of reform that came after the American Revolution, as a new nation, America was inspired to make a profound change in its public institutions. The country was also inspired to become the world’s example in social development. All the current American institutions; educational, governmental, and medical, were revolutionized during this time by the humanistic and rational principles of Enlightenment. From all the mentioned innovations during this period, the American democracy was the most influential. Second on the list was the intellectual export in prison reform and design (Colvin, 1997). Most prisons in the U.S during the 18th century were simply in form large holding pens. In these prisons, men and women, adults and children, and murderers and petty thieves, had their issues and affairs sorted out behind locked doors. Mutilation and physical punishment were so common during this period, and prisoners being abused by overseers and guards were totally assumed. In 1788, a group of famous and powerful Philadelphians converged at the home of Benjamin Franklin. These members of The Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons expressed their concern about the poor condition of American prisons. Dr. Benjamin Rush talked the goal of the Society, which was to ensure that the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sets international standards for the prisons. He proposed a radical idea which was to

BRIC Economies and Its Implications in Organizations Essay

BRIC Economies and Its Implications in Organizations - Essay Example In 2010 South Africa was also included in this group and the acronym is now known as BRICS. It has captured major attention of political leaders, scientists and also the economists (California State Assembly, 2010). The BRICS nations are growing rapidly with a systematic growth embracing the global capitalism (Global, n.d). They are predicted to be the forefront of the world’s most progresses economies. China is now considered to be the second largest economy in the world in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). Although the per capita income of people living in developed countries is more than that of the BRIC countries but still there is considerable rise in the income of the middle income group people in such countries. Since the government of such nations is actively incorporating growth stabilizing policies, it is believed that India and China will soon emerge as the leading supplier of manufactured services and goods while Russia and Brazil may be the major suppliers o f raw inputs (Academia, 2013). In the above graph the dark green bars denote the income of the BRIC countries and the light green bars indicates the income of the G 6 countries in terms of GDP. The income level of all the countries in the world will increase with a growth of the world economy. Till 2020 it is observed that the income of BRIC nations is less than half compared to that of the G6. The estimation from 2020 afterwards shows that the BRIC economies surpass half the income of that of the G 6 countries. Finally by 2040 the income of BRIC countries will be more than that of the G 6 nations (CIA, 2013).... The Five BRICS Brazil being independent in 1822 is now considered to be the most populous country in South America. It is perusing both industrial as well as agricultural growth and is now well known for its growing development within its boundaries. Brazil has become a strong economy in recent years exploiting its large natural resources and substantial labor force to work. There are still some problems like high inequality of income and hence a very excessive amount of corruption still now persists in this country. Brazil is expanding its world markets in sectors like agriculture, mining, service as well as manufacturing etc. The nation has also achieved a macroeconomic stability and has been successful to raise its foreign exchange reserves. Although Brazil has grown rapidly in 2007 to 2008 and has become a global creditor but still the recent economic recession has hit Brazil. Recession has touched Brazilian economy in two quarters. But it soon recovered its economic growth and h as now gained the confidence of investors. In 2010 the GDP of Brazil experienced 7.5% growth, which is considered to be the highest in the last 25 years. The high level of income inequality in Brazil has declined in the last 14 years. The high interest rate of the country has involved in large amount of capital inflows and hence appreciated the economy. This has however disturbed the domestic manufacturing and compelled the government to intervene in the matters related to foreign exchange markets and has also lead to rise in taxes of the capital inflows from foreign countries. India is also considered as a member of BRIC, it terms of nominal GDP it is the ninth largest country in the world and

Recreational Beach Water Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Recreational Beach Water - Essay Example The waterborne pathogens are classified as bacteria, protozoa and virus. Each of these is attributable to specific illnesses. Commencing with bacteria, there are two major classes of bacteria that are greatly attributed to causing diseases in recreational water. According to the Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, they are Fecal coliform and the Escherichia coli. Fecal Coliform is usually found in the gut and feces of human being and other warm-blooded animals. They find their way into recreational water through sewage and runoff waters. They are attributed to the cause of diarrhea. According to Parry and Palmer (2002), Escherichia coli cause bloody diarrhea and kidney illness. Such diseases are usually contracted through swallowing of the contaminated recreational water Moreover, a plethora of viruses and protozoa are renown for causing diarrhea and other gastrointestinal infections. Other recreational water infections include skin infections, ear infections, respiratory infections, eye and neurological infections (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). The first challenge faced in monitoring and managing beach water is the fact that pool codes and inspection items vary across jurisdictions (Wymer, 2007). Consequently, there are varied reports about the results of the tests carried out. Thus, there is need to facilitated a collection of pool inspection data in standardized and electronic format. This may also help in enhancing routine analysis hence perpetuating the efforts of reducing health and safety risks for recreational water users. Another prominent problem is lack of worker safety response tool kits. Some beaches and pools lack the appropriate toolkits for workers who monitor beaches and pools. Another challenge is that there is increased tendency of violating of various pool codes. For instance, many pools and beaches have improperly maintained pool logs, unapproved water test kits, invalid pool licenses and invalid operator

Exploring the Psychological and Emotional Issues as Relates to a Known Essay

Exploring the Psychological and Emotional Issues as Relates to a Known Stillbirth - Essay Example Pregnancies that reach 38 weeks of gestation normally don't result in the fetus being still born but occasionally this does take place. When it does the midwife and other medical professionals have to be prepared and willing to help the mother cope and seek professional help to get through the devastating tragedy she has to deal with (Geller & Neugebauer 2001, p. 432). The problematic situations that take place are of high concern and the grieving process in itself is just as complicated as attempting to understand the stillbirth of the baby. What makes the grieving process so difficult is the fact that the mother has not had the opportunity to bond with her baby so there are no memories there to comfort the parent at all. This is medically termed, 'the token of remembrance' and leads to high anxiety levels for many of these mothers due to the facts that they never had the opportunity to dress, caress, hold, or even speak with their babies (Radestad et al 1996, pg. 1505). Often the m other falls into a deep depression and goes through a series of psychological phases, some having been briefly mentioned. The traumatization is one very important factor that presents itself in cases such as this one. Some of these are self-blame, and guilt even though there might not exist a medical explanation for the loss whatsoever (Frost 1996, p. 54). As the research will show, psychoanalytical theory, although utilized in the past for assessments following stillbirths was popular in decades past it is now considered unreliable and does not provide relevant information that correlates with the emotional state of women who suffer from such a loss. Stillbirth is now considered to be an event that creates intense feelings of sorrow and depression which can turn to more serious psychological problems, far exceeding the regular baby blue syndrome that women have following a normal delivery of a live baby. Ultimately from having had personal experience with this young woman I can strongly say that I believe the psychosocial factors are what are of the highest concern in ensuring her well-being following this loss. The support that she needs from her spouse, a woman's support network, and her own relatives will definitely affect how she will appraise her loss and cope with it. These also will have a part in how well she manages the various emotional stages that she will indeed have to endure and how her level of distress will have to be managed as well. As was mentioned, depression and high levels of anxiety are the two most common psychological influences following such a tragic occurrence for women. The Case Study The case study shows a woman that was physically fit and took care of herself following the full 38 weeks of her pregnancy. There is no mention of cigarette smoking or alcohol abuse that could be tied in with the untimely death of her fetus in utero. Often these concurrent problems are what medical experts have found that can cause still-births and other related problems with a fetus while still in utero (Lester et al 2004, pg. 1477). However, as was stated, in this case there was no known

Mix Racial and Cultural Groups Are Growing in the United States Essay Example for Free

Mix Racial and Cultural Groups Are Growing in the United States Essay Mixed Racial and Cultural Groups is increased by a marginal number in the United States. The growth of these multiracial groups started to surface through migration of different ethnics and raised most of their families in the United States even through marriage. These are some of the issues that have been raised by individual people of having an entity separation of mixed race and cultural or to considered them as Americans without a hyphen. Thinking about this issue myself, and thinking of my two children who married to a different ethnic rather than Samoans. These questions come to mind about this issue: How, Why, and what the three words that needs a big explanation about this matter. According to multiracial Americans, Americans whose identity as two or more races identifies with just one group culturally and socially. From statistics that I got from online, stated that about 2.9% of the population in the year 2010 are self-identified as multiracial. The identity or the classification of the people’s identification is generally according to the culture they were raised in. Social segregation in many areas of the country is forming interracial unions or cultural group. The diversity of social conditions through migrations brought new groups of people to the United States. Through these migrations, mixed races started to rise when interracial marriage were born and started to increase in the United States. The movement of multiracial identity by more than one ethnicity has taken place and strong. Statistics from the year 2010 census in the United States shows that the largest multiracial groups were white and black which is 1.8 million. The other 1.7 millions are white and some other race, white and Asian is 1.6, white and American Indian and Alaskan Native is 1.4 million. I have learned that the largest growing group in multiracial is white and black which is about 134%. That is more than 1 million people. MIX RACIAL AND CULTURAL GROUP According to Susan Saulny of the New York Times, title Race Remixed, said that â€Å"sea of change is how we think about race, ethnicity and its place in society†. I believe that a challenge to trend towards multiracial from a sociological perspective is a leap that we should take. The understanding of racial and ethnic categories of their boundaries can be a problem to other multiracial groups. I think that ancestry is the biggest influence in identities through a number of generations through migrations. I also believe that each multi mix or racial group should be treated the same regardless of their identity. If they are legally citizens of the United States, they have the right to be treated equally. I believe that they have contributed to the wellbeing and welfare of the United States through their services in employment within the government, military or private companies. Regardless of the race and ethnicity, they should be treated and considered Americans. President Obama is good example of what I mean about treating them the same no matter what color of their skin or where they are from. I know that some of these mix race entities are trying to separate themselves with-in the United States but when they travel to other countries of the world, they considered be call Americans. As a citizen of New Zealand, I am proud to call myself to be an American and I respect the land that my children were born. What can the United States or these multiracial groups gain from wanting to be separated from their identity. Through my search online, I came across Mrs. Karissa Sulliva’s draft and she said that ancestry influences identities. She said that socialization is the crucible of racial and ethnic identity formation. Farley in 2002, construct racial and ethnic classifications which was adopted by the government for each race or reconsidered themselves to either refuse to identify their own race and ethnic category. MIX RACIAL AND CULTURAL GROUP I believe that mix racial and cultural groups are increasing daily by the number throughout the United States. However, research shows that children with an original multiracial identity grow up to be happier than those of single-race identity. Some of the statistics shows that another addition to the growth of mix race is through adoption of children from countries outside of the United States. According to Fact’s for Families 2010, parents are coping with these pressures in having open communications with the families about their culture and race. Encouragement and support in every multicultural group for families to be familiar with their language, traditions and customs within their families. They have to support and try to establish a good relationship by creating a network for their children, parents, family member, relatives and the community. In conclusion, the separation and classifications between mix racial and multicultural groups is not an easy task or thing to do. Two of my children are married to different ethnic. My oldest daughter is married to an African American and my son is married to a girl who is beautiful and white but has about four or five mix blood in her. I believe in democracy and the United States is nowhere in having a separation of any mix race and cultural group who are living in the United States. God Bless America, God bless the people of the United States. References: Perez, Anthony Daniel, Hirschman, Charles. The Changing Racial and Ethnic. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2882688/ The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (March-2011). Facts for Families, no.71 Multiracial Children. http://www.aacap.org/galleries/FactsForFamilies/71_multiracial_children.pdf Dr. Nicole Martinez and Mrs. Karissa Sullivan. May 6, 2013 .docx.

Morality In Candide And A Clockwork Orange Philosophy Essay

Morality In Candide And A Clockwork Orange Philosophy Essay Free will, morality and destiny, these are all concepts that people have been debating for thousands of years. In A Clockwork Orange and Candide these topics are addressed at length and make up the bulk of discussion throughout the novels. Candide is the story of a man trying to find his way in an unfamiliar world after having been kicked out of his home. A Clockwork Orange is about a teenager who commits a murder and is then selected for a treatment allowing early release from prison. The two are good examples of a philosophical tale and are thematically similar, except that they differ in the final moral message. The final line in Candide That is well said, but we must cultivate our garden. (Voltaire 96) can be interpreted as we must improve our world, whereas in A Clockwork Orange this line But now as I end this story, brothers, I am not young, not no longer, oh no. Alex like growth up, oh yes. (Burgess 198) shows that it is about personal growth. The similarities between that two , however, are much greater, focusing on the theme: there are limits to human free will. Candide and A Clockwork Orange both show free will exists, but differ in how they show the limitations upon free will. Firstly, in Candide, existence of free will is shown mainly through the philosophical exchange between characters. All this is for the very bestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ said Pangloss. A little dark man spoke up Apparently the gentleman does not believe in original sin; for, if all is for the best then there has been neither fall nor punishment. I very humbly beg Your Excellencys pardon, for the fall of man and the curse necessarily entered into the best of possible worlds. Then the gentleman does not believe in free will? Your Excellency will excuse me, free will can coexist with absolute necessity, for it was necessary that we should be free; for after all, predetermined willà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (Voltaire 13-14) This is one of the most important dialogues illustrating how Leibnitz optimism (that all is for the best) reconciles the existence of free will with the use of the Judeo-Christian origin myth. Pangloss stance is that after original sin human beings were sent to the best of all possible w orlds, the man hes talking to asked how we can have free will if this is so, and so Pangloss replied that it is necessary to have free will in order to be in the best of all possible worlds. Secondly, in A Clockwork Orange, it is shown that being human requires having free will, A man who cannot choose ceases to be a man. (Burgess 168). A couple of views are shown, those of Alex and F. Alexander and also of the government. The protagonist (although not a hero) Alex believes that everyone is born, to some degree, with an innate evilness, but we choose what we do. More, badness is of the the self, the one, the you or me on our oddy knockies, and that self is made by old Bog or God and is his great pride and radostyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ But what I do I do because I like to do. (Burgess 47), evil is instinctive (because of God), but we make our own choices. F. Alexander in polar opposition believes that all are born good or as a tabula rasa (blank slate) and are spoiled by society and culture. Limitations on free will are shown in Candide through the impossibility of circumstances, which we can call destiny. Sure man controls his own will, but he certainly cannot control everything, for example the actions of others and those of God. Candide was about to be executed when the King passing by freed him, he is shipwrecked and then stuck in an earthquake, he finds out all the people he thought were dead are still alive, etc. these are some of the many events which Candide had no control over, but he had the freedom to choose how to act in these situations. And, in the end, Candide says we must cultivate our garden (Voltaire 96); improve our world, since we have free will. Lastly, in A Clockwork Orange destiny is also a limitation, but in a different way. There are things that we cannot change, for example: birth where, when, to whom, genetics, etc. It is shown how the environment that Alex grew up in has shaped who he is as a person and since a person is the sum of their experiences, which start off as out of their control (birth, childhood, etc.), it can be said that he is not entirely responsible for his actions. Another limitation is thought manipulation. You are what you think is an adage that sums this up and if you cant control what you think or feel you therefore cannot control your actions and do not have free will. This is shown in A Clockwork Orange with the Ludvico Technique; Alex is conditioned to experience extreme pain and discomfort when he has violent or other evil (as determined by the government) thoughts. Forcibly doing good is portrayed as being worse than choosing evil It may not be nice to be good, little 6655321. It may be hor rible to be good. And when I say that to you I realize how self-contradictory that sounds. I know I shall have many sleepless nights about this. What does God want? Does God want goodness or the choice of goodness? Is a man who chooses the bad perhaps in some ways better than a man who has the good imposed upon him? Deep and hard questions, little 6655321. (Burgess 105) and good is explained as being meaningless without the presence of evil, without a choice being made à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ by definition, a human being is endowed with free will. He can use this to choose between good and evil. If he can only perform good or only perform evil, then he is a clockwork orange-meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by God or the Devil or (since this is increasingly replacing both) the Almighty State. It is as inhuman to be totally good as it is to be totally evil. The important thing is moral choice. Evi l has to exist along with good, in order that moral choice may operate. Life is sustained by the grinding opposition of moral entities. (Burgess 4). Both Candide and A Clockwork Orange posit the existence of free will. They both also show limitations on it, but have different limitations. Candides limitations are those of destiny and A Clockwork Oranges are those of destiny and manipulation. In Candide, through highly improbable situations, we are shown that there is a lot we cannot control, even though we have free will. In A Clockwork Orange destiny is shown, but as things we cannot choose like birth, and manipulation is the moulding of thoughts and feelings and therefore behaviour. In Candide the moral message is that free will should be used, we should act rather than romanticize because nobody else is going to. In A Clockwork Orange it is shown that since people have free will they also have a chance at redemption, no matter how rotten they may be, and that by taking away free will they lose that chance.

The Evolution of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Essay

The Evolution of Euthanasia      Ã‚   This essay will investigate the evolution of the practice of euthanasia in the one country that has promoted it steadfastly for some years. The surprising result of my studies for this essay is the revelation that the Netherlands' practice of euthanasia has become so liberalized that it is no longer recognizable as the same program that was originally legislated.    Euthanasia in the Netherlands has gone from requiring terminal illness to no physical illness at all, from physical suffering to depression only, from conscious patients to unconscious, from those who can consent to those who cannot, and from being a measure of last resort to one of early intervention. Although respect for patient autonomy is the main ethical argument in favor of euthanasia, power has passed almost exclusively into doctors' hands. Patient autonomy has been subverted by the unprecedented rights given by the courts to doctors to decide the fate of patients.    The public era of euthanasia in the Netherlands began in 1973, [1] when two significant events occurred. A government commission reported that the ban on active euthanasia should remain, and a doctor, after admitting killing her sick mother who wanted to die, was found guilty, and given a suspended sentence. Evidence was tendered that she had only done what was already commonly, though unofficially, done by many doctors. The court announced several conditions which, in its view, would justify the active killing of a patient. In 1981 and 1983, two courts reached similar conclusions.    A State Commission on Euthanasia decided in 1982, [2] that 'a doctor who terminates the life of a patient at the latter's expressed and serious desir... ...t of The Remmelink Report and the van der Maas Study in Euthanasia, in Euthanasia, Clinical Practice and the Law. Ed Gormally L. The Linacre Centre 1994. p 219-240. 12. Id. p 230. 13. Pijnenborg L, van der Maas PJ, van Delden JJM, Looman CWN. Life terminating acts without explicit request of patient. Lancet 1993; 341: 1196-1199. 14. Van Delden JJM, Pijnenborg L, van der Maas PJ. The Remmelink Report; Two Years Later. Hastings Cent Rep 1993; Nov/Dec 24-27. 15. Fenigsen R. The Netherlands; New Regulations Concerning Euthanasia. Issues Law Med 1993; 9: 167-171. 16. Id. p 170. 17. van der Wal G, van der Maas PJ, Bosma JM, Onwuteaka-Philipsen BD, Willems DL et al. Evaluation of the Notification Procedure for Physician-Assisted Death in the Netherlands. New Eng J Med. 1996; 335: 1706-1711. 18. Mark Ludlow. Canberra Times. 17 November 1996.

The Character of Phoenix Jackson in Eudora Weltys A Worn Path Essays

The Character of Phoenix Jackson in Eudora Welty's A Worn Path 'A Worn Path' is the tale of the unstoppable love and care of a grandmother for her grandchild. Phoenix Jackson is Eudora Welty's main character and protagonist in   A Worn Path.? Phoenix is an old, frail woman who attempts to proceed on a long and treacherous journey through the woods to Natchez. Phoenix strives forward despite frequent obstacles in her way that include her own failing health and her grandchild's slim chance of survival. As she takes this prolonged trek across the woods, many of her characteristics are revealed. Her tenacity, senility, and consideration that she displays throughout her long worn path emphasize her character. Phoenix's precarious journey may seem dangerous, but her determination is what carries her through the obstacles she faces as she makes her way through the woods. Phoenix makes her way across the worn path and discovers many active opponents. She continues forward over barriers that would not even be considered a hindrance for the young. The long hill that she takes tires her, the thornbrush attempts to catch her clothes, the log that Phoenix goes across endangers her balance as she walks across it, and the barbed-wire fence threatens to puncture her skin. All of these impediments that Phoenix endures apparently do not affect her because she is determined that nothing will stop her on her journey. She keeps proceeding onward letting nothing deter her determination. ?The hunter(tm)s attempt to instill fear in Phoenix, a fear she disposed of years ago as she came to terms with her plight in society, fail   (Sykes 151). She ?realizes that the importance of the trip far exceeds the pos sible harm that can be done to her brittle ... ...es in Short Fiction. 14.3 (1977): 288-290. Evans, Robert C., Anne C. Little, and Barbara Wiedemann. Short Fiction: A Critical Companion. West Cornwall, CT: Locust Hill, 1997. 265-270. Gretlund, Jan N.. Eudora Welty(tm)s Aesthetics of Place. Odense UP, 1994. 322, 337-338. Isaacs, Neil D..   Life for Phoenix.? The Critical Response to Eudora Welty(tm)s Fiction. ed. Laurie Champion. London: Greenwood, 1994. 37-42. Marrs, Suzanne.   Eudora Welty(tm)s Photography: Images into Fiction.   Critical Essays on Eudora Welty. W. Craig Turner and Lee Emling Harding. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall, 1989. 288-289. Sykes, Dennis J.. ?Welty(tm)s The Worn Path.   Explicator. 56.3: 151-153. 1998 Spring. Welty, Eudora. ?The Worn Path.? Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: PH, 2001. 150-155.

Policies Affecting Indigenous Australians Essay -- Aboriginal, Australi

Indigenous Australians have faced many changes to their original life style, with numerous policies being brought in. These policies had an incredible affect on how the indigenous Australians lived. The policies inflicted on the indigenous Australians varied widely and had numerous impacts. The policies of assimilation, protection and integration had mainly negative impacts on the community, causing loss of identity, language and religion. The policies of self-determination and reconciliation, had mostly positive effects to the indigenous Australian community, creating a stronger bond between black and white Australians, encouraging the concept of closing the gap between indigenous Australians and non-indigenous Australians. These policies had an incredible influence on the indigenous Australians life, changing many ways they lived. The policies changed the path of history for all Australians. The protection policy the first policy and had serious affects on the aboriginals of Australia. Violence against aboriginal people had been at a high rate, the white Australians felt it their duty to protect the aboriginals, the policy aimed to separate aboriginals from white Australians. They were removed and put into government reserves and church missions, where they were forced to become Christians. The aim of the policy and missions was to eradicate all aboriginals’ languages, religions and spirituality, In 1883 a protection board was set up to run the missions. The missions and camps had a paternalistic approach, treating the aboriginals the way a parent would treat a small child. The impact from this policy was horrific, with the mission being similar to a prison. Aboriginals lost their independence and became extremely reliant o... ... community and live along side white Australians, while other aboriginals happily moved in to the community and came to live a more civilised life. The next policy brought in was the policy of self determination this, was very welcomed by the aboriginal community, as it gave the aboriginals back some of their rights. As the relationship between non-indigenous Australians and indigenous Australians improved, there was a high demand for reconciliation. With many opinions including why the people of today should say sorry for the past Australians injustices. The affects from reconciliation were caused by the controversial approach; there have been numerous speeches, activities and ‘sorry days’. The affects from all the policies varied greatly, due to the differences in the policies. The affects caused change the path of history and have gotten us where we are today.

Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. Introduction The nature and extent of victimization is not adequately understood across the world. Millions of people throughout the world suffer harm as a result of crime, the abuse of power, terrorism and other stark misfortunes. Their rights and needs as victims of this harm have not been adequately recognized. The UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power in 1985. This provides a universal benchmark by which progress can be assessed in meeting the needs of victims of crime and abuse of power. Much progress has been made since 1985 primarily by governments in Western Europe, North America and elsewhere. They have implemented programmes and laws to give effect to those basic principles but even in affluent countries much work remains. Additional resources are needed everywhere especially for countries that are developing and in transition. The convention on transnational organized crime includes a specific section to protect the rights of victims as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June, 2005, 99 nations had already ratified the Statute of Rome that establishes a permanent International Criminal Court which gives effect to the principles in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of crime and abuse of power are still not adequately recognized in any part of the world. Their families, witnesses and others, who aid them, are still unjustly subjected to loss, damage or injury. They too often suffer hardship when assisting in the prosecution of offenders. The recent UN Congress in Bangkok also drew attention to the victims of terrorism. Victims of stark misfortunes such as natural disasters, accidents and diseases share similar trauma, loss and suffering. Services to meet the needs of victims have much in common between victims of crime, abuse of power and stark misfortunes. Action must be taken to advance research, services and awareness for victims across the world. This requires persons committed to these ideals, better services, more research, innovative education and training and continued advocacy and rights. It requires a process of assessing progress and acting to make the necessary improvements. II. DISCUSSION I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY A. The Early Roots The word â€Å"victim† has its roots in many ancient languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern: victima in Latin; và ­h, wà ©oh, wà ­g in Old European; wà ­h, wà ­hi in Old High German; và © in Old Norse; weihs in Gothic; and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Webster’s 1971). Victimology as an academic term contains two elements: †¢ One is the Latin word â€Å"Victima† which translates into â€Å"victim†. †¢ The other is the Greek word â€Å"logos† which means a system of knowledge, the direction of something abstract, the direction of teaching, science, and a discipline. Although writings about the victim appeared in many early works by such criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garà ³falo (1885), Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang (1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to study victims and the word â€Å"victimology† had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937; 1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term â€Å"victimology† in his article â€Å"A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science, Victimology† (1956). It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of an international society of victimology which has come to fruition with the creation of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a number of victimological institutes (including the creation in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute); and, the establishment of international journals which are now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and blueprint; and, as his disciples we have followed his guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as â€Å"The Father of Victimology†. B. Critical Dates in Victimology †¢ 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook. †¢ 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim. †¢ 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and criminal interactions. †¢ 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term â€Å"victimology† in a French journal. †¢ 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim. †¢ 1949 Frederic Wertham first used the word â€Å"victimology† in a book Show of Violence. †¢ 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times. †¢ 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims; uses the term â€Å"victim precipitation†. †¢ 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act. †¢ 1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation. †¢ 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law. †¢ 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police †¢ 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. †¢ 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. †¢ 1972 The first three victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D. C. †¢ 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel. †¢ 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. †¢ 1975 The first â€Å"Victim Rights’ Week† is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney, * Associate Professor, Criminology Department, California State University, Fresno; Director, Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School, Japan. Pennsylvania, USA. †¢ 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Vi ctim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology. †¢ 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany. †¢ 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender. †¢ 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims’ Rights Week in April. †¢ 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate drunk drivers about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA. †¢ 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services. †¢ 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland. †¢ 1988 The first â€Å"Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime† conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. †¢ 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN. †¢ 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit. †¢ 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars, courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia and lectures and research about victimology. †¢ 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration. †¢ 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet level committee. The new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender, information about criminal justice and a right to formally participate in the criminal justice process. C. Victim Assistance Since the mid 1970s victim assistance programmes in America had to cope with the realization that this new field did not have a professional corps of people with special training in dealing with crime victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a mixture of medical doctors, ministers, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, on-the-job trained counsellors, persons outside the helping professions and volunteers with all levels of training. There were no international or national professional standards. There was no certificate or degree to prepare someone to do the work of helping victims recover. However, before formal victim assistance programmes evolved, there were some people trained to work with victim problems, especially people who had been helping child abuse and family violence victims. These were social workers. Today, the victim services scene has changed. There are a wide array of professionals and non-professionals working with victims. These would include: social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, medical doctors, non-specific professionals (who received their formal degrees in other fields but were trained to help victims in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings); and, volunteers (who also received their training in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings, many of which are 40 hour training modules offered by the victim service agencies where they work). Today the field of victim assistance is the major career field in victimology for persons wanting to help victims of crime directly. The single largest and oldest university offering a bachelor’s degree in victimology and a victim services certificate is the California State University, Fresno. Worldwide, it can be estimated that there are about 20,000 victim service programmes now operating: reducing suffering and facilitating recovery. II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY A. Concepts 1. â€Å"Victim† has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of â€Å"victim† was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender. 2. â€Å"Crime victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime. 3. â€Å"Victimogenesis† refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur. 4. â€Å"Victim Precipitation† a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization. 5. â€Å"Vulnerability† is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them. 6. â€Å"General Victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon. 7. â€Å"Victimization† refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well being. 8. â€Å"Victimology† is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victim’s experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and responses by people, organizations and cultures related to victimizations. 9. â€Å"Abuse of Power† is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces. 10. â€Å"Victim Assistance, Support or Services† are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy and programme development. 11. â€Å"Victim Recovery† is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or trauma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully exceed their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of: trust in others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over person al situations, successful relationships, safety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have become manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an improved ability to ward off potential threats. 12. â€Å"Child Abuse† is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care. 13. â€Å"Victim Offender Mediation† (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender dialogue, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative justice. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and community members or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that occurred as a result of th e crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the conflict that caused the crime in the first place. 14. â€Å"Restorative Justice† is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime. 15. â€Å"Victim Trauma† includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects. 16. â€Å"Crisis Intervention† is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma. 17. â€Å"Compensation† is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for â€Å"out of pocket† real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law. 18. â€Å"Restitution† is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender. 19. â€Å"Victim Survey† is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months. 20. â€Å"Victim Rights† are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government and the community at large. B. Abuse of Power 1. Background In spite of the legal sanctions which exist throughout the world to prevent the abuse of power (AOP), it continues to occur with growing frequency and relative impunity. There are essentially five considerations to abuse of power: the type of abuser; the specific abuser; the method used; the victims; and the extent of injury and damage. In each of these five considerations there are numerous examples ranging from the Government of South Africa’s use of apartheid on Black South Africans causing extensive death and suffering, to the criminal organization known as the MAFIA which uses racketeering, coercion, intimidation, graft and corruption on innocent citizens causing extensive death, suffering and property loss. The most recent example of AOP is the government of Yugoslavia (now dominated by ethnic Serbs) using extreme forms of aggression, against Croats, Bosnia Muslims, and most recently ethnic Kosovans with: mass killings; mass rapes; extensive destruction of property; buildings, and sacred cultural symbols, for the most part ignoring the protocols found in the Geneva Conventions for the conduct of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by scholars, but predominantly in narrative form. Thus far, very few attempts have been made to isolate the key variables, explain the dynamics of these events and measure their occurrences. 2. Theoretical Problem Like all phenomena, these abuse of power events lend themselves to definitions, theoretical organization and measurement. The magnitude of these occurrences dramatically turn our heads away from the dispassionate evaluation of the facts. The drama of these events is so compelling, even trained theorists put aside their research tools and yield to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these massive abuses. In spite of the strong emotions, the magnitude of the problem calls for careful measurement, analysis and synthesis so that a degree of understanding can emerge. This proposal will consider using the social behavioural and conflict theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena. III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATION A. The Importance and Limitations of Descriptive Research Descriptive research is primarily concerned with generally characterizing a phenomenon to determine basic information about amount, frequencies and categories of a particular theme. Thus, one of the basic types of data in descriptive research is nominal level data or the counting of â€Å"apples and oranges†. The most important type of victimological descriptive research are victimization surveys. These surveys have thus far become the backbone of victimology information. Not only do these surveys give us the number and types of victims, they also give us trend information so that we can compare victims from one jurisdiction to another, from one type of victim to another, and we can measure the rate of victimization for a given population in a given time period. Another important measurement using survey research is the measurement of behaviours that exist as continua. These types of research give us information about the feelings, opinions and responses the victims have. Thus, they are very important in understanding the impact of victimization and the progress of recovery. 1. The Necessity of Evaluative Research Another important type of research is the evaluative research used to measure the official government or organizational responses to victimization and the programmes used to help victims cope. These types of research are aimed at measuring the systemic aspects of the victim experience. This is usually focused on the â€Å"Twin Criteria of Success†: effectiveness, which evaluates the achievement of programme objectives; and, efficiency which evaluates the consumption of resources over the time needed to achieve objectives. Another aspect of evaluative research is accountability, both economic and political. Economic accountability focuses on whether the existence of a particular programme in a given community is justified given the funds available and the value-system currently in existence. Political accountability focuses on whether the existence of a victim programme and its costs are supported by those in power. A large part of accountability has to do with community values, outcome expectations and official responsibilities. The measurement of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or culture. 2. Explaining the Victimization with Causal Research Perhaps the most challenging and difficult form of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explain why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena dealing with victims. For example, it might try to understand why some victims are severely traumatized by an event, while other victims are not seriously impacted by the same event. The usual method of this form of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and effect variables. Then, to measure these variables and see if the data can support the hypotheses. Ultimately, this process can lead to understanding not just one casual link, but many connected causal links, or a causal chain. A victimologist can then develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered using causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex social and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently persons working to prevent victimization could have empirically derived facts so as to reduce the vulnerability of potential victims. Crisis interveners could effectively reduce the suffering of victims immediately after the victimization and prevent the escalation of trauma. Advocates and therapists, basing their response on protocol analysis, could better know what works to facilitate victim recovery and reduce or eliminate long-term suffering and promote the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized. IV. THE FUTURE OF VICTIMOLOGY A. Promising Practices As new programmes and new laws evolve some prove effective and others not. In the search for programmes and laws that fulfil the fundamental aims of the United National Declaration, â€Å"to be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity, to be provided with access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress to be informed of their rights, to be informed of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the proceedings and of the disposition of their case, to be provided with proper assistance throughout the legal process, to have their privacy protected and insure their safety, to be considered for receipt of restitution, to be informed about receiving compensation.† These criteria determine the value of programmes and laws so that they can be evaluated and ultimately recommended as worthy of duplication. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes, laws, practices and rights, specific examples have become known. Some of these are listed below (from the New Directions from the Field: Victims’ Rights and Services for the 21st Century, U.S. Department of Justice, 1998). 1. Law Enforcement †¢ In San Diego, California there is a partnership between the police and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic Violence Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the police agencies in the community for accurate information about the availability of shelters at any given time. †¢ In Provo, Utah victims participate in crime solving, called â€Å"victim-assisted† investigations. †¢ In Orange County, California a group of five victim advocates working together in a non-profit programme work with police and prosecutors to ensure comprehensive services for victims of gang violence. 2. Prosecution †¢ In Kenosha, Wisconsin, a programme established by the district attorney established special prosecution units for domestic violence and sensitive crimes. †¢ In Pinellas County, Florida, the state’s attorney’s office established a special prosecutor to be responsible for all elder exploitation and neglect cases. This includes police training, community outreach and education for other prosecutors. †¢ In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Victim Services Unit located in the District Attorney’s Office, employs Vietnamese and Cambodian victim-witness coordinators to assist victims from Southeast Asia throughout their case process, including translating information and helping victims with emergency medical and financial assistance. 3. Judiciary †¢ In Tucson, Arizona, the Municipal Court established a partnership with the police, victim advocates, prosecutors and health care professionals to form a Community Domestic Violence Awareness Centre. †¢ In New York State, the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to provide assistance to children in the courts so as to provide a special space for child care so that those children whose parents are in court have a safe haven during their stay. †¢ In Santa Clara County, California, the courts have established local family violence councils to provide a comprehensive response to domestic violence. 4. Corrections †¢ In Texas, the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of severe violence and their incarcerated offenders. †¢ In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims (IOC) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at providing 40 hours of education to inform offenders about how crimes affect victims and society. †¢ The US Federal Bureau of Prisons piloted victim awareness classes on drug and domestic violence crimes for offenders in halfway houses in Baltimore, Maryland, and Tampa, Florida. B. Reality of Promising Practices Although a wide variety of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as â€Å"promising† most of these have not been subjected to any form of empirical evaluation. Before these programme can be accepted as worthy of duplication, they must be carefully scrutinized over a sufficient time period. V. Demographic Characteristics The risk of becoming a crime victim varies as a function of demographic variables such as: †¢ Gender †¢ Age †¢ Race †¢ Socioeconomic class Gender With the exception of sexual assault and domestic violence, men have higher risk of assault than women (Gelles & Straus, 1988; Hanson et al., 1993; Norris, 1992). Lifetime risk of homicide is three to four times higher for men than women (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). Age Adolescents have substantially higher rates of assault than young adults or older Americans (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick, Edmunds & Seymour, 1992; Kilpatrick et al., in press; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey indicate that 12-to-19 year olds are two to three times as likely as those over 20 to become victims of personal crime each year (Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from The National Women’s Study indicate that 62% of all forcible rape cases occurred when the victim was under 18 years of age (Kilpatrick et al., 1992). Race Racial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1991; Reiss & Roth, 1993). In 1990, African-Americans were six times more likely than white Americans to be homicide victims (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992). Rates of violent assault are approximately twice as high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to White Americans (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Kilpatrick et al. (1991) found that African-Americans (28%) and Hispanic-Americans (30%) were significantly more likely than White Americans (19%) to have ever been violent victims of crime. Socioeconomic Class Violence disproportionately affects those from lower socioeconomic classes (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1991). Family income is related to rates of violence and victimization, with lower income families at a higher risk than those from higher income brackets (Reiss & Roth, 1993). †¢ For example, in 1988, the risk of victimization was 2.5 times greater for families with the lowest incomes (under $7,500) compared to those with the highest ($50,000 and over) (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Using longitudinal data from The National Women’s Study, Kilpatrick et al., (in press) found that women with household incomes less than $10,000 had odds 1.8 times greater than those with incomes of $10,000 or more of becoming a rape or aggravated assault victim in the two year follow-up period. Poverty increased the risk of assault even after controlling for the effects of prior victimization and sensation seeking. However, some other studies report that family income is a less important predictor of victimization than gender, age, or ethnicity (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Interpreting Demographic Characteristic Data Some of the conflicting findings about demographic characteristics as risk factors for violent crime are attributable to methodological variations across studies. Another reason for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is, they are so interrelated as to cause some difficulty in separating out their relative contributions. Demographic variables of age, gender, and racial status all tend to be confounded with income: young people tend to be poorer than older people; women tend to have less income than men; and African-Americans tend to have less income than white Americans. Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of Violence Until recently, there was little appreciation of the extent to which many people are victims of crime not just once, but several times during their lifetime. There was sufficient understanding of how repeated victimization increases the risk for and complexity of crime-related psychological trauma. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the risk of further victimization and/or of violent behavior by the victim. Several studies show that a substantial proportion of crime victims has been victimized more than once and that a history of victimization increases the risk of subsequent violent assault (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., in press; Koss & Dinero, 1989; Resnick, Kilpatrick, Dansky, Saunders & Best, 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1992; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Wyatt, Guthrie & Notgrass, 1992; Zawitz, 1983). Other research suggests that the risk of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse problems is higher among repeat victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced only one violent assault (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Breslau et al., in press; Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, Best & Epstein, 1994). Still other evidence suggests that youth victimization history increases risk of involvement with delinquent peers and of subsequent delinquent behavior (Ageton, 1983; Dembo et al., 1992; Straus, 1984; Widom, 1989, 1992). Some research shows that involvement with delinquent or deviant peers increases the risk of victimization (e.g., Ageton, 1983), and that substance use also increases risk of victimization (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1994; Cottler, Compton, Mager, Spitznagel, and Janca, 1992). Another line of research has found that a history of child abuse and neglect increases risk of delinquent behavior during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an adult (e.g., Widom, 1989, 1994). This new knowledge about repeat victimization and the cycle of violence has several implications for appropriate mental health counseling for crime victims: †¢ Mental health professionals should include crime prevention and substance abuse prevention in their work with victims to decrease the risk that new victimization or substance abuse problems will occur (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Kilpatrick et al., 1994). †¢ Mental health professionals should not assume that the crime they are treating is the only one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful crime victimization history. †¢ Providing effective mental health counseling to victims may well be an effective way to reduce the risk of future victimization, substance use /abuse, delinquency and violent behavior. Residential Location Where an individual lives influences one’s risk of becoming a violent crime victim. Reiss and Roth (1993) report that violent crime rates increased as a function of community size. For example, the violent crime rate was 359 per 100,000 residents in cities of less than 10,000; but 2,243 per 100,000 in cities with populations over a million translates to rates seven times greater. (Reiss & Roth, 1993; p. 79). Data including non-reported crimes from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) also indicate that violent crime rates are highest in central cities, somewhat lower in suburban areas, and lowest in rural areas (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). The UCR and the NCVS are better at measuring street crime than at measuring violent crimes perpetrated by acquaintances or partners. Thus, the assumption that the increased risk of violent assault associated with residential location most likely results from stranger attacks, not necessarily from attacks by family members or other intimates, is a function of the limits of the measurement device. Exposure to Potential Assailants No violent assault can occur unless an assailant has access to a potential victim. Someone could have every previously discussed risk factor for violent assault and be completely safe from assault unless approached by an assailant. A prominent theory attempting to predict risk of criminal victimization is the routine activities theory. As described by Laub (1990), the risk of victimization is related to a person’s lifestyle, behavior, and routine activities. In turn, lifestyles and routine activities are generally related to demographic characteristics (e.g., age and marital status) and other personal characteristics. If a person’s lifestyle or routine activities places him or her in frequent contact with potential assailants, then they are more likely to be assaulted than if their routine activities and lifestyle do not bring them into as frequent contact with predatory individuals. For example, young men have higher rates of assaultive behavior than any other age-gend er group (Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). Thus, those whose routine activities or lifestyles involve considerable contact with young men should have higher rates of victimization. Likewise, people who are married, who never leave their houses after dark, and who never take public transportation should have limited contact with young men, and therefore have reduced risk of assault. Although some have argued that routine activities theory has substantial support in the empirical literature (Laub, 1990; Gottfredson, 1981), most of the crime victimization data that are used to evaluate assault risk measure stranger assaults much better than partner or acquaintance assaults. Thus, the theory is probably much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults. VI. Conclusion and Recommendation Crime-related psychological trauma impairs the ability and/or willingness of many crime victims to cooperate with the criminal justice system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the criminal justice system because it cannot accomplish its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every key stage of the criminal justice system process–from contemplating making a report to police, to attending a parole hearing–interactions can be stressful for victims and often exacerbates crime-related psychological trauma. Victims whose crime-related fear makes them reluctant to report crimes to police or who are too terrified to testify, effectively make it impossible for the criminal justice system to accomplish its mission. Thus, it is important to understand: †¢ Victims’ crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What aspects of the criminal justice system process are stressful to victims. †¢ What can be done to help victims with their crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What can be done to help victims cope with criminal justice system-related stress. Effective partnerships among the criminal justice system, victim assistance personnel, and trained mental health professionals can help victims with crime-related psychological trauma and with criminal justice system-related stress. By helping victims through such partnerships, the criminal justice system also helps itself become more effective in curbing and reducing crime. Several factors in the application of different conditioning principles to victims’ interactions with the criminal justice system helps us understand why the criminal justice system is so stressful for many victims. First, involvement with the criminal justice system requires crime victims to encounter many cognitive and environmental stimuli that remind them of the crime. These range from: †¢ Having to look at the defendant in the courtroom. †¢ Having to think about details of the crime when preparing to testify. †¢ Confronting a member of â€Å"second-order conditioned stimuli† in the form of police, victim/witness advocates, and prosecutors. Second, encountering all these crime-related conditioned stimuli often results in avoidance behavior on the part of the victims. †¢ Such avoidance behavior is generated by conditioned fear and anxiety, not by apathy. Avoidance can lead victims to cancel or not show up for appointments with criminal justice system officers, or victim advocates. Aside from conditioning, there are several other reasons that interacting with the criminal justice system can be stressful for victims. †¢ One reason interactions are stressful is because victims lack information about that system and its procedures, and victims fear the unknown. †¢ A second reason interactions are stressful is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken seriously by the criminal justice system. Most victims view the criminal justice system as representative of society as a whole, and whether they are believed and taken seriously by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken seriously by society. VI. Bibliography 1. (Bachman, 1994; Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 1992; Hanson, Freedy, Kilpatrick, and Saunders, 1993; Kilpatrick, Seymour & Boyle, 1991; Breslau, Davis, Andreski, and Peterson, 1991; Kilpatrick , Resnick, Saunders, and Best, in press; Norris, 1992; Adler et al., 1994; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). 2. Dussich, John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. â€Å"Victim Assistance in Japan: History, Culture and Programmes.† In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff (editors) Victimology at the Transition: From the 20th to the 21st Century: Essays in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach, Germany: Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer, Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York: Random House. 4. www.wikipedia.com 5. www.google.com.ph â€Å"Victimology†